Councils that shaped Christianity
From Jerusalem to Vatican II
Awaiting theological review
Council of Jerusalem
Biblical — not counted among the 21 ecumenical councils
- When
- c. AD 49–50
- Where
- Jerusalem
Why it happened
Gentiles were becoming Christians in Antioch and beyond. Some insisted they must be circumcised and keep the Law of Moses.
The main question
Must non-Jewish believers become Jews to follow Christ?
What was decided
Acts of the Apostles 15:1–35 · Galatians 2:1–10ScriptureThe apostles and elders, after hearing Peter, Paul, Barnabas and James, decided not to impose circumcision on Gentile believers, asking only a few abstentions.
Acts of the Apostles 15:19–20 · Acts of the Apostles 15:28Why it matters today
It is the model for later councils: the Church gathers, listens to the Spirit and to one another, and decides together. It is biblical, and is not counted among the 21 later ecumenical councils.
First Council of Nicaea
1st ecumenical council
- When
- 325
- Where
- Nicaea (today İznik, Turkey)
Why it happened
The priest Arius of Alexandria taught that the Son of God was a creature, made by the Father before time.
The main question
Is the Son truly God, equal to the Father?
What was decided
Historical contextThe council confessed the Son as of one substance (homoousios) with the Father and condemned Arius.
Historical contextIt produced the first form of the Nicene Creed and addressed the date of Easter.
Why it matters today
Christians still confess this faith every Sunday in the Creed. The council was called by the emperor Constantine.
First Council of Constantinople
2nd ecumenical council
- When
- 381
- Where
- Constantinople (today Istanbul)
Why it happened
After Nicaea, some still denied the full divinity of the Son or of the Holy Spirit.
The main question
Is the Holy Spirit God?
What was decided
Historical contextIt confirmed Nicaea and confessed the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, worshipped and glorified with the Father and the Son.
Why it matters today
The Creed said at Mass is called the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed because of this council.
Council of Ephesus
3rd ecumenical council
- When
- 431
- Where
- Ephesus (Turkey)
Why it happened
Nestorius, archbishop of Constantinople, objected to calling Mary Theotokos, Mother of God.
The main question
Is Jesus one person, so that Mary is truly mother of God?
What was decided
Historical contextIt upheld that Christ is one person, true God and true man, and that Mary may rightly be called Theotokos.
Why it matters today
Behind every Marian title stands this confession about Christ.
Council of Chalcedon
4th ecumenical council
- When
- 451
- Where
- Chalcedon (today Kadıköy, Istanbul)
Why it happened
Some taught that in Christ the human nature was absorbed into the divine.
The main question
How are God and man united in Christ?
What was decided
Historical contextChrist is one person in two natures, divine and human, without confusion, change, division or separation. The council received the Tome of Pope Leo I.
Why it matters today
The standard formula of faith about Christ for Catholic, Orthodox and most Protestant churches. Some Eastern churches did not accept it; dialogue continues.
The Lateran Councils
9th–12th, 18th ecumenical council
- When
- 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, 1512–1517
- Where
- The Lateran Basilica, Rome
Why it happened
Five councils in the pope's cathedral addressed reform of the clergy, elections and the life of the Church.
The main question
How should the Church reform itself and its pastoral life?
What was decided
Historical contextThe Fourth Lateran Council (1215), under Innocent III, required annual confession and Easter communion and used the word transubstantiation for the Eucharist.
Why it matters today
Many habits of Catholic life — like the Easter duty — come from Lateran IV.
Council of Trent
19th ecumenical council
- When
- 1545–1563
- Where
- Trento (Italy)
Why it happened
The Protestant Reformation challenged Catholic teaching on Scripture, grace and the sacraments, and real abuses demanded reform.
The main question
What does the Catholic Church teach on justification, Scripture and the sacraments — and how should it reform?
What was decided
Historical contextIt defined teaching on Scripture and Tradition, justification and the seven sacraments, and ordered seminaries for training priests.
Historical contextIts decrees led to the Roman Catechism (1566) and the reformed Missal (1570).
Why it matters today
Seminaries, catechisms and much of Catholic life for four centuries came from Trent. In 1999 Catholics and Lutherans signed a Joint Declaration on justification.
First Vatican Council
20th ecumenical council
- When
- 1869–1870
- Where
- St Peter's Basilica, Rome
Why it happened
Rationalism and political upheaval led Pius IX to call a council on faith and the Church.
The main question
How do faith and reason relate, and what is the role of the pope?
What was decided
Historical contextDei Filius: faith and reason cannot truly contradict each other.
Historical contextPastor Aeternus defined papal primacy and the conditions of papal infallibility.
Why it matters today
The council was suspended when Italian troops took Rome in 1870; its work on the Church was completed by Vatican II.
Second Vatican Council
21st ecumenical council
- When
- 1962–1965
- Where
- St Peter's Basilica, Rome
Why it happened
John XXIII wanted the Church to renew itself and speak the Gospel to the modern world.
The main question
How can the Church faithfully present the Gospel to the people of our time?
What was decided
Historical contextFour constitutions: on the liturgy (Sacrosanctum Concilium), the Church (Lumen Gentium), Revelation (Dei Verbum) and the Church in the modern world (Gaudium et Spes).
Historical contextIt allowed the liturgy in local languages and gave new impetus to Scripture, ecumenism and the role of lay people.
Why it matters today
The Church today — from the Mass in your language to the universal call to holiness — is shaped by Vatican II.